Real World

Real world cyber crime cases This document is an extract from the book Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective authored by Rohas Nagpal. This book is available as courseware for the Diploma in Cyber Law and PG Program in Cyber Law conducted by Asian School of Cyber Laws www. asianlaws. org Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. Real World Cases This chapter serves as a ready reference guide. First the various scenarios are covered. A detailed discussion on the various cyber crimes, is covered in the ASCL publication titled â€Å"Understanding Hackers and Cyber Criminals†. This is provided as official courseware for the ASCL Certified Cyber Crime Investigator course. Then the applicable law and legal liabilities are covered. Then the modus operandi usually followed by the criminals is discussed. The investigation guidelines for cyber crime investigators are not discussed in this book as they are part of the syllabus of the ASCL Certified Cyber Crime Investigator course only. For real world case studies on investigation of cyber crimes, please refer to the ASCL publication titled â€Å"Case Studies on Cyber Crime Investigation†. This is provided as official courseware for the ASCL Certified Cyber Crime Investigator course. – 130 –  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 1 Orkut Fake Profile cases Orkut. com is a very popular online community and social networking website. Orkut users can search for and interact with people who share the same hobbies and interests. They can create and join a wide variety of online communities. The profiles of Orkut members are publicly viewable. The scenarios 1. A fake profile of a woman is created on Orkut. The profile displays her correct name and contact information (such as address, residential phone number, cell phone number etc). Sometimes it even has her photograph. The problem is that the profile describes her as a prostitute or a woman of â€Å"loose character† who wants to have sexual relations with anyone. Other Orkut members see this profile and start calling her at all hours of the day asking for sexual favours. This leads to a lot of harassment for the victim and also defames her in society. 2. An online hate community is created. This community displays objectionable information against a particular country, religious or ethnic group or even against national leaders and historical figures. 3. A fake profile of a man is created on Orkut. The profile contains defamatory information abut the victim (such as his alleged sexual weakness, alleged immoral character etc) The law Scenario 1: Section 67 of Information Technology Act and section 509 of the Indian Penal Code. Scenario 2: Section 153A and 153B of Indian Penal Code. Scenario 3: Section 500 of Indian Penal Code. Who is liable? Scenario 1: Directors of Orkut as well as all those who create and update the fake profile. Scenario 2: Same as Scenario 1. Scenario 3: Same as Scenario 1.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 131 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective The motive Scenario 1: Jealousy or revenge (e. g. the victim may have rejected the advances made by the suspect). Scenario 2: Desire to cause racial hatred (e. g. Pakistani citizens creating an anti-India online community). Scenario 3: Hatred (e. g. a school student who has failed may victimize his teachers). Modus Operandi 1. The suspect would create a free Gmail account using a fictitious name. 2. The email ID chosen by him would be unrelated to his real identity. 3. The suspect would then login to Orkut. com and create the offensive profile. – 132 –  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 2 Email Account Hacking Emails are increasingly being used for social interaction, business communication and online transactions. Most email account holders do not take basic precautions to protect their email account passwords. Cases of theft of email passwords and subsequent misuse of email accounts are becoming very common. The scenarios 1. The victim’s email account password is stolen and the account is then misused for sending out malicious code (virus, worm, Trojan etc) to people in the victim’s address book. The recipients of these viruses believe that the email is coming from a known person and run the attachments. This infects their computers with the malicious code. 2. The victim’s email account password is stolen and the hacker tries to extort money from the victim. The victim is threatened that if he does not pay the money, the information contained in the emails will be misused. 3. The victim’s email account password is stolen and obscene emails are sent to people in the victim’s address book. The law Scenario 1: Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act. Scenario 2: Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act and section 384 of Indian Penal Code. Scenario 3: Sections 43, 66 and 67 of Information Technology Act and section 509 of the Indian Penal Code. Who is liable? Scenario 1: Persons who have stolen the email account password and who are misusing the email account. Scenario 2: Persons who have stolen the email account password and who are threatening to misuse it.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 133 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective Scenario 3: Persons who have stolen the email account password and who are misusing the email account. The motive Scenario 1: Corporate Espionage, perverse pleasure in being able to destroy valuable information belonging to strangers etc. Scenario 2: Illegal financial gain. Scenario 3: Revenge, jealousy, hatred. Modus Operandi 1. The suspect would install keyloggers in public computers (such as cyber cafes, airport lounges etc) or the computers of the victim. 2. Unsuspecting victims would login to their email accounts using these infected computers. 3. The passwords of the victim’s email accounts would be emailed to the suspect. – 134 –  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 3 Credit Card Fraud Credit cards are commonly being used for online booking of airline and railway tickets and for other ecommerce transactions. Although most of ecommerce websites have implemented strong security measures (such as SSL, secure web servers etc), instances of credit card frauds are increasing. The scenario The victim’s credit card information is stolen and misused for making online purchases (e. g. airline tickets, software, subscription to pornographic websites etc). The law Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act and section 420 of Indian Penal Code. Who is liable? All persons who have stolen the credit card information as well as those who have misused it. The motive Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi Scenario 1: The suspect would install keyloggers in public computers (such as cyber cafes, airport lounges etc) or the computers of the victim. Unsuspecting victims would use these infected computers to make online transactions. The credit card information of the victim would be emailed to the suspect. Scenario 2: Petrol pump attendants, workers at retail outlets, hotel waiters etc note down information of the credit cards used for making payment at these establishments. This information is sold to criminal gangs that misuse it for online frauds. 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 135 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 4 Online Share Trading Fraud With the advent of dematerialization of shares in India, it has become mandatory for investors to have demat accounts. In most cases an online banking account is linked with the share trading account. This has led to a high number of online share trading frauds. The scenario Scenario 1: The victim’s account passwords are stolen and his accounts are misused for making fraudulent bank transfers. Scenario 2: The victim’s account passwords are stolen and his share trading accounts are misused for making unauthorised transactions that result in the victim making losses. The law Scenario 1: Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act and section 420 of Indian Penal Code. Scenario 2: Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act and section 426 of Indian Penal Code. Who is liable? Scenario 1: All persons who have stolen the account information as well as those who have misused it. Scenario 2: All persons who have stolen the account information as well as those who have misused it. The motive Scenario 1: Illegal financial gain Scenario 2: Revenge, jealousy, hatred Modus Operandi Scenario 1: The suspect would install keyloggers in public computers (such as cyber cafes, airport lounges etc) or the computers of the victim. Unsuspecting victims would use these infected computers to login to their online banking and share trading accounts. The passwords and other information of the victim would be emailed to the suspect. Scenario 2: Same as scenario 1. – 136  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 3. 5 Tax Evasion and Money Laundering Many unscrupulous businessmen and money launderers (havala operators) are using virtual as well as physical storage media for hiding information and records of their illicit business. The scenario Scenario 1: The suspect uses physical storage media for hiding the information e. g. hard drives, floppies, USB drives, mobile phone memory cards, digital camera memory ca rds, CD ROMs, DVD ROMs, iPods etc. Scenario 2: The suspect uses virtual storage media for hiding the information e. g. mail accounts, online briefcases, FTP sites, Gspace etc. The law Scenario 1: Depending upon the case, provisions of the Income Tax Act and Prevention of Money Laundering Act will apply. Scenario 2: Depending upon the case, provisions of the Income Tax Act and Prevention of Money Laundering Act will apply. Who is liable? Scenario 1: information. The person who hides the Scenario 2: The person who hides the information. If the operators of the virtual storage facility do not cooperate in the investigation, then they also become liable. The motive Scenario 1: Illegal financial gain Scenario 2: Illegal financial gain Modus Operandi Scenario 1: The suspect would purchase small storage devices with large data storage capacities. Scenario 2: The suspect would open free or paid accounts with online storage providers.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 137 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 6 Source Code Theft Computer source code is the most important asset of software companies. Simply put, source code is the programming instructions that are compiled into the executable files that are sold by software development companies. As is expected, most source code thefts take place in software companies. Some cases are also reported in banks, manufacturing companies and other organisations who get original software developed for their use. The scenario Scenario 1: The suspect (usually an employee of the victim) steals the source code and sells it to a business rival of the victim. Scenario 2: The suspect (usually an employee of the victim) steals the source code and uses it as a base to make and sell his own version of the software. The law Scenario 1: Sections 43, 65 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 63 of the Copyright Act. Scenario 2: Sections 43, 65 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 63 of the Copyright Act. Who is liable? Scenario 1: The persons who steal the source code as well as the persons who purchase the stolen source code. Scenario 2: The persons who steal the source code. The motive Scenario 1: Illegal financial gain. Scenario 2: Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi Scenario 1: If the suspect is an employee of the victim, he would usually have direct or indirect access to the source code. He would steal a copy of the source code and hide it using a virtual or physical storage device. – 138 – 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective If the suspect is not an employee of the victim, he would hack into the victim’s servers to steal the source code. Or he would use social engineering to get unauthorised access to the code. He would then contact potential buyers to make the sale. Scenario 2: If the suspe ct is an employee of the victim, he would usually have direct or indirect access to the source code. He would steal a copy of the source code and hide it using a virtual or physical storage device. If the suspect is not an employee of the victim, e would hack into the victim’s servers to steal the source code. Or he would use social engineering to get unauthorised access to the code. He would then modify the source code (either himself or in association with other programmers) and launch his own software.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 139 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 7 Theft of Confidential Information Most business organisations store their sensitive information in computer systems. This information is targeted by rivals, criminals and sometimes disgruntled employees. The scenario Scenario 1: A business rival obtains the information (e. g. tender quotations, business plans etc) using hacking or social engineering. He then uses the information for the benefit of his own business (e. g. quoting lower rates for the tender). Scenario 2: A criminal obtains the information by hacking or social engineering and threatens to make the information public unless the victim pays him some money. Scenario 3: A disgruntled employee steals the information and mass mails it to the victim’s rivals and also posts it to numerous websites and newsgroups. The law Scenario 1: Sections 43 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 426 of Indian Penal Code. Scenario 2: Sections 43 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 384 of Indian Penal Code. Scenario 3: Sections 43 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 426 of Indian Penal Code. Who is liable? Scenario 1: The persons who steal the information as well as the persons who misuse the stolen information. Scenario 2: The persons who steal the information as well as the persons who threaten the victim and extort money. Scenario 3: The disgruntled employee as well as the persons who help him in stealing and distributing the information. The motive Scenario 1: Illegal financial gain. Scenario 2: Illegal financial gain. Scenario3: Revenge. – 140  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective Modus Operandi Scenario 1: The suspect could hire a skilled hacker to break into the victim systems. The hacker could also use social engineering techniques. Illustration: A very good looking woman went to meet the system administrator (sysadmin) of a large company. She interviewed the sysadmin for a â€Å"magazine article†. During the interview she flirted a lot with the sysadmin and while leaving she â€Å"accidentally† left her pen drive at the sysadmin’s room. The sysadmin accessed the pen drive and saw that it contained many photographs of the lady. He did not realize that the photographs were Trojanized! Once the Trojan was in place, a lot of sensitive information was stolen very easily. Illustration: The sysadmin of a large manufacturing company received a beautifully packed CD ROM containing â€Å"security updates† from the company that developed the operating system that ran his company’s servers. He installed the â€Å"updates† which in reality were Trojanized software. For 3 years after that a lot of confidential information was stolen from the company’s systems! Scenario 2: Same as scenario 1. Scenario 3: The disgruntled employee would usually have direct or indirect access to the information. He can use his personal computer or a cyber cafe to spread the information.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 141 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 8 Software Piracy Many people do not consider software piracy to be theft. They would never steal a rupee from someone but would not think twice before using pirated software. There is a common perception amongst normal computer users to not consider software as â€Å"property†. This has led to software piracy becoming a flourishing business. The scenario Scenario 1: The software pirate sells the pirated software in physical media (usually CD ROMs) through a close network of dealers. Scenario 2: The software pirate sells the pirated software through electronic downloads through websites, bulletin boards, newsgroups, spam emails etc. The law Scenario 1: Sections 43 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 63 of Copyright Act. Scenario 2: Sections 43 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 63 of Copyright Act. Who is liable? Scenario 1: The software pirate as well as the persons who buy the pirated software from him. Scenario 2: The software pirate as well as the persons who buy the pirated software from him. The motive Scenario 1: Illegal financial gain. Scenario 2: Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi Scenario 1: The suspect uses high speed CD duplication equipment to create multiple copies of the pirated software. This software is sold through a network of computer hardware and software vendors. Scenario 2: The suspect registers a domain name using a fictitious name and then hosts his website using a service provider that is based in a country that does not have cyber laws. Such service providers do not divulge client information to law enforcement officials of other countries. – 142  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 9 Music Piracy Many people do not consider music piracy to be theft. They would never steal a rupee from someone but would not think twice before buying or using pirated music. There is a common perception amongst people users to not consider music as â€Å"property†. There is a huge business in music piracy. Thousands of unscrupulous businessmen sell pirated music at throw away prices. The scenario Scenario 1: The music pirate sells the pirated music in physical media (usually CD ROMs) through a close network of dealers. Scenario 2: The music pirate sells the pirated music through electronic downloads through websites, bulletin boards, newsgroups, spam emails etc. The law Scenario 1: Sections 43 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 63 of Copyright Act. Scenario 2: Sections 43 and 66 of the Information Technology Act, section 63 of Copyright Act. Who is liable? Scenario 1: The music pirate as well as the persons who buy the pirated software from him. Scenario 2: The music pirate as well as the persons who buy the pirated software from him. The motive Scenario 1: Illegal financial gain. Scenario 2: Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi Scenario 1: The suspect uses high speed CD duplication equipment to create multiple copies of the pirated music. This music is sold through a network of dealers. Scenario 2: The suspect registers a domain name using a fictitious name and then hosts his website using a service provider that is based in a country that does not have cyber laws. Such service providers do not divulge client information to law enforcement officials of other countries.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 143 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 10 Email Scams Emails are fast emerging as one of the most common methods of communication in the modern world. As can be expected, criminals are also using emails extensively for their illicit activities. The scenario In the first step, the suspect convinces the victim that the victim is going to get a lot of money (by way of winning a lottery or from a corrupt African bureaucrat who wants to transfer his ill gotten gains out of his home country). In order to convince the victim, the suspect sends emails (some having official looking documents as attachments). Once the victim believes this story, the suspect asks for a small fee to cover legal expenses or courier charges. If the victim pays up the money, the suspect stops all contact. The law Section 420 of Indian Penal Code Who is liable? The sender of the email. The motive Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi The suspect creates email accounts in fictitious names and sends out millions of fraudulent emails using powerful spam software. – 144 –  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 11 Phishing With the tremendous increase in the use of online banking, online share trading and ecommerce, there has been a corresponding growth in the ncidents of phishing being used to carry out financial frauds. Phishing involves fraudulently acquiring sensitive information (e. g. passwords, credit card details etc) by masquerading as a trusted entity. The scenario Scenario 1: The victim receives an email that appears to have been sent from his bank. The email urges the victim to click on the link in the email. When the victim does so, he is taken to â€Å"a secure page on the bank’s website†. The victim believes the web page to be authentic and he enters his username, password and other information. In reality, the website is a fake and the victim’s information is stolen and misused. The law Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act and sections 419, 420 and 468 of Indian Penal Code. Who is liable? All persons involved in creating and sending the fraudulent emails and creating and maintaining the fake website. The persons who misuse the stolen or â€Å"phished† information are also liable. The motive Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi The suspect registers a domain name using fictitious details. The domain name is usually such that can be misused for spoofing e. g. Noodle Bank has its website at www. oodle. com The suspects can target Noodle customers using a domain name like www. noodle-bank-customerlogin. com The suspect then sends spoofed emails to the victims. e. g. the emails may appear to come from [email  protected] com The fake website is designed to look exactly like the original website.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 1 45 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 12 Cyber Pornography Cyber pornography is believed to be one of the largest businesses on the Internet today. The millions of pornographic websites that flourish on the Internet are testimony to this. While pornography per se is not illegal in many countries, child pornography is strictly illegal in most nations today. Cyber pornography includes pornographic websites, pornographic magazines produced using computers (to publish and print the material) and the Internet (to download and transmit pornographic pictures, photos, writings etc). The scenario The suspect accepts online payments and allows paying customers to view / download pornographic pictures, videos etc from his website. The law Section 67 of Information Technology Act. Who is liable? The persons who create and maintain the pornographic websites are liable. In some cases cyber cafe owners and managers may also be liable in case they knowingly allow their customers to access the pornographic websites. The motive Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi The suspect registers a domain name using fictitious details and hosts a website on a server located in a country where cyber pornography is not illegal. The suspect accepts online payments and allows paying customers to view / download pornographic pictures, videos etc from his website. – 146 –  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 3 Online Sale of Illegal Articles It is becoming increasingly common to find cases where sale of narcotics drugs, weapons, wildlife etc. is being facilitated by the Internet. Information about the availability of the products for sale is being posted on auction websites, bulletin boards etc. The scenario The suspect posts information about the illegal sale that he seeks to make. P otential customers can contact the seller using the email IDs provided. If the buyer and seller trust each other after their email and / or telephonic conversation, the actual transaction can be concluded. In most such cases the buyer and seller will meet face to face at the time of the final transaction. Illustration: In March 2007, the Pune rural police cracked down on an illegal rave party and arrested hundreds of illegal drug users. The social networking site, Orkut. com, is believed to be one of the modes of communication for gathering people for the illegal â€Å"drug† party. The law Depending upon the illegal items being transacted in, provisions of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, Arms Act, Indian Penal Code, Wildlife related laws etc may apply. Who is liable? The persons who buy and sell these items. The motive Illegal financial gain. Modus Operandi The suspect creates an email ID using fictitious details. He then posts messages, about the illegal products, in various chat rooms, bulletin boards, newsgroups etc. Potential customers can contact the seller using the email IDs provided. If the buyer and seller trust each other after their email and / or telephonic conversation, the actual transaction can be concluded. In most such cases the buyer and seller will meet face to face at the time of the final transaction.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. 147 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 14 Use of Internet and Computers by Terrorists Many terrorists are using virtual as well as physical storage media for hiding information and records of their illicit business. They also use emails and chat rooms to communicate with their counterparts around the globe. The scenario The suspects carry laptops w herein information relating to their activities is stored in encrypted and password protected form. They also create email accounts using fictitious details. In many cases, one email account is shared by many people. E. g. one terrorist composes an email and saves it in the draft folder. Another terrorist logs into the same account from another city / country and reads the saved email. He then composes his reply and saves it in the draft folder. The emails are not actually sent. This makes email tracking and tracing almost impossible. Terrorists also use physical storage media for hiding the information e. g. hard drives, floppies, USB drives, mobile phone memory cards, digital camera memory cards, CD ROMs, DVD ROMs, iPods etc. They also use virtual storage media for hiding the information e. g. mail accounts, online briefcases, FTP sites, Gspace etc. The law Terrorists are covered by conventional laws such as Indian Penal Code and special legislation relating to terrorism. Who is liable? Terrorists as well as those who help them to protect their information are liable. If email service providers do not assist the law enforcement personnel in the investigation then they are also legally liable. T he motive Keeping terrorism related information confidential. Secure communication amongst terrorist group members. Modus Operandi The terrorists purchase small storage devices with large data storage capacities. They also purchase and use encryption software. The terrorists may also use free or paid accounts with online storage providers. – 148  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 23. 15 Virus Attacks Computer viruses are malicious programs that destroy electronic information. As the world is increasingly becoming networked, the threat and damage caused by viruses is growing by leaps and bounds. The scenario Scenario 1: The virus is a general â€Å"in the wild† virus. This means that it is spreading all over the world and is not targeted at any specific organisation. Scenario 2: The virus targets a particular organisation. This type of a virus is not known to anti-virus companies as it is a new virus created specifically to target a particular organisation. The law Scenario 1: Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act and section 426 of Indian Penal Code. Scenario 2: Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act and section 426 of Indian Penal Code. Who is liable? Scenario 1: The creator of the virus. Scenario 2: The creator of the virus as well as the buyer who purchases the virus (usually to target his business rivals). The motive Scenario 1: Thrill and a perverse pleasure in destroying data belonging to strangers. Scenario 2: Illegal business rivalry. financial gain, revenge, Modus Operandi Scenario 1: A highly skilled programmer creates a new type or strain of virus and releases it on the Internet so that it can spread all over the world. Being a new virus, it goes undetected by many anti-virus software and hence is able to spread all over the world and cause a lot of damage. Anti-virus companies are usually able to find a solution within 8 to 48 hours.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. 149 – Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective Scenario 2: A highly skilled programmer creates a new type or strain of virus. He does not release it on the Internet. Instead he sells it for a huge amount of money. The buyer uses the virus to target his rival company. Being a new virus, it may be undetected by the victim company’s anti-virus software and hence would be able to cause a lot of damage. Anti-virus companies may never get to know about the existence of the virus. – 150 –  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. Cyber Crime & Digital Evidence – Indian Perspective 3. 16 Web Defacement Website defacement is usually the substitution of the original home page of a website with another page (usually pornographic or defamatory in nature) by a hacker. Religious and government sites are regularly targeted by hackers in order to display political or religious beliefs. Disturbing images and offensive phrases might be displayed in the process, as well as a signature of sorts, to show who was responsible for the defacement. Websites are not only defaced for political reasons, many defacers do it just for the thrill. The scenario The homepage of a website is replaced with a pornographic or defamatory page. In case of Government websites, this is most commonly done on symbolic days (e. g. the Independence day of the country). The law Sections 43 and 66 of Information Technology Act [In some cases section 67 and 70 may also apply]. Who is liable? The person who defaces the website. The motive Thrill or a perverse pleasure in inciting communal disharmony. Modus Operandi The defacer may exploit the vulnerabilities of the operating system or applications used to host the website. This will allow him to hack into the web server and change the home page and other pages. Alternatively he may launch a brute force or dictionary attack to obtain the administrator passwords for the website. He can then connect to the web server and change the webpages.  © 2008 Rohas Nagpal. All rights reserved. – 151 – www. asianlaws. org Head Office 6th Floor, Pride Senate, Behind Indiabulls Mega Store, Senapati Bapat Road, Pune – 411016. India Contact Numbers +91-20-25667148 +91-20-40033365 +91-20-64000000 +91-20-64006464 Email: [email  protected] org URL: www. asianlaws. org

Counter Terrorism

The dawn of the 21st century have enormously occupied fear and uncertainty as it may seem to pass by time of the dark ages where barbarian swordsmen annihilate the villagers and sorcerers put into spell the weaklings.The aftermath of the terrorists attack to the US on September 11th year 2001, known as the 9/11 tragedy, have resulted strong beliefs that a powerful nation like the US is vulnerable to such cowardice and barbaric acts, much more vulnerable are the rests of the US allied countries particularly those belonging from the third world that are potential targets of terrorists. Countries around the world and most especially the member states of the United Nations have called for the massive execution of strategies to counter terrorism.As cited from the US National Counterterrorism Center (US-NCC) document on April 30th 2007, with its Report on Terrorist Incidents of 2006, accounted that: approximately 14,000 terrorist attacks occurred in various countries during 2006, resulting in over 20,000 deaths, as compared in 2005, attacks in 2006 rose by 3,000 (a 25% increase) while death rose by 5,800 (a 40% increase), as was the case last year, by far the largest number of terrorist incidents and deaths occurred in the near East and South Asia.The document further cited that: â€Å"the two regions (East and South Asia) were the locations for 90% of the nearly 300 high-casualty attacks in 2006 that killed ten or more people, only a total of five high-casualty attacks in Europe-Eurasia, East Asia-Pacific and the Western Hemisphere†. A Brief Historical Background The overthrowing of the Soviet army by the military force of Afghan Muslim guerrilla warriors or commonly called as â€Å"mujahideen† in the early 1980’s has gave birth to al-Qaeda and began its operation in Afghanistan and Pakistan.An excerpt from the research paper of Rohan Gunaratna, an Associate Professor at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore and Director of the Internati onal Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research, narrated that al Qaeda enhanced its capabilities for a global networking throughout the 1990’s from its base in Asia and Sudan. Accordingly, â€Å"al-Qaeda effectively armed, trained, financed and theologically indoctrinated three-dozen Islamic groups in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Caucasus†.Further cited from Rohan Gunaratna research paper, â€Å"specifically, over the course of the 1990’s, al-Qaeda and Taliban camps in Afghanistan trained between 70,000 and 120,000 Muslim youth to fight in the Philippines (Mindanao), Indonesia (Maluku and Poso), Myanmar, China (Xinjiang), Kashmir, Bosnia, Kosovo, Chechnya, Dagestan, Nagorno-Karabakh, Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Yemen and elsewhere†.It can be realized that the global network of the al-Qaeda is far reaching the targets as its Muslim brethren can be easily persuaded by its diverse capabilities, as the World Islamic Front imminently wage its holy war or Jihad. Response of Nations The Report of the US-NCC have found to be undiscerning and does not cause alarm to its allied countries but discloses the fatal blow of terror in order for nations to respond with cautious certainty. The certainty of response is to ascertain acts that shall be preemptive, preventive, and combative to the dreadful characters of the terrorists.As a result of the extreme importance and immediate need, the United Nations Security Council have passed and approved Resolution 1373 of 2001 creating the Counter-Terrorism Committee â€Å"that shall continue to monitor Member States’ implementation of resolution 1373 of 2001, guided by its principles of cooperation, transparency, equal treatment and consistency in approach†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Letter of Ricardo Alberto Arias, Chairman, Security Council Committee, United Nations, 20 November 2007). As also cited in the letter, under par.13 (facilitating assistance to states), that â€Å"the committee will co nduct thematic discussions on strengthening efforts to limit terrorists’ mobility with the participations of experts from all of the relevant technical international organizations†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Confronted with the challenges to overcome chaos, the Member States to the United Nations, particularly the third world countries, are resolute to collaborative efforts as embodied in their respective economic, political, socio-cultural framework of governance.Like in the United Kingdom (UK), who has long been plagued by domestic terrorism as a result of its domestic strife with Northern Ireland, the passing to parliament of the UK Strategy in Countering Terrorism of 2006, accordingly â€Å"has had a long-term strategy for countering terrorism, known within UK government as CONTEST, aims to reduce the risk from international terrorism so that the people can go about their daily lives freely and with confidence.The strategy is divided into four principal strands: (1) prevent; tackling the radicalization of individuals, (2) pursue; reducing the terrorist threat to UK and to UK interests overseas by disrupting terrorists and their operations, (3) protect; reducing the vulnerability of the UK and the interests overseas† (HM Government, Countering International Terrorism: The United Kingdom’s Strategy, July 2006).In the US where immediately responding at the 9/11 tragedy, the Director for the National Intelligence (DNI) outlined the 100 Day Plan program accordingly with its goal â€Å"to demonstrate short term progress and build momentum for integration and transformation across the community†.Cited from its 100 Day Plan program, â€Å"it has been aligned to six integration and transformation focus areas which covers: (1) create a culture of collaboration, (2) foster collection and analytic transformation, (3) build acquisition excellence and technology leadership, (4) modernize business practices, (5) accelerate information sharing, and (6) clar ify and align DNI’s authorities† (United States Intelligence Community, 100 Day Plan for Integration and Collaboration, Washington DC 20511).Most recently on January 8th 2008, DNI published its program framework entitled as â€Å"Procuring the Future: 21st Century IC Acquisition†. Accordingly, the purpose is â€Å"to avert conflict and preserve peace†¦Ã¢â‚¬  with multiple areas of concern on: â€Å"(1) military, (2) proliferation, (3) foreign policy, (4) economics, (5) terrorism/narcotics/international organized crimes, (6) technology, and (7) regional conflict†. The program thrust support the enactment of US Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 2007 as amended with modernization provisions for Fiscal Year 2008.In sum, it comprises and outlines the US Counterintelligence Strategy of 2007 which adheres to empowering its homeland security. Meanwhile in South East Asia, the ten member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), namely: (1) Brunei Darussalam, (2) Cambodia, (3) Indonesia, (4) People’s Democratic Republic of Lao, (5) Malaysia, (6) Myanmar, (7) Philippines, (8) Republic of Singapore, (9) Thailand, and (10) Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, continuously affirm its economic, political and cultural ties.The international diplomatic ties among the ASEAN Nations are a linking arm or reinforcement as it is one of the vital targets of terrorist attacks in the South East Asia. The ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism held in Cebu, Philippines on January 13th 2007, have renewed and reaffirmed the commitment to countering international terrorism through adopting strategic framework in law enforcement, economic and political programs and upholding the rule of law with relevance to protecting and preserving the human rights.Thus, laying down the global agenda brought about by the emerging response of the UN and various enactments of strategic policies in the fight against terrorism, the remaining c ountries that propel terrorism are at large exploring its own identity—the entanglement from its traditional culture and race, the decadence of religious belief and blinded by remorse from first world dominion. Counter Terrorism: In Perspective The work of every Nation to war on terrorism is widened at the global perspective.The global populace understood that terrorism is characterized by barbaric acts. Social scientists considerably view that in the case of the holy war or jihad, the Islamic secessionist group emulates Osama bin Laden as a Messiah (in which a messianic complex is attributed) to the fundamentalist rulers in Afghanistan that propagates Islamic terrorism against US and its allies. However, Muslim scholars literally view the jihad as being utilized or used into conflict of interest and a clamor for Islam.According to the published article of Laura Mansfield on her interview to Shaykh Ayman al-Zawahari, â€Å"today in Palestine, conspiracies to abort the Jihad and surround the Mujahideen are being hatched by the same forces which created Israel and with the cooperation of their agents among our people. I repeat to you, my brothers, that we must be conscious of the legal and factual realities of this conflict, lest the treacherous leadership deceives us and we get lost in the market of political bargaining† (Laura Mansfield, Realities of the Conflict – Between Islam and Unbelief, Full Transcript of Zawahiri Tape December 20, 2006).The minds of the Afghan supporters to Islamic secessionist have long been entangled to its religious beliefs on the destiny of the jihad. More so have been ideologically instilled with anguish against the Westerners, particularly the US and UK, as it condoned the Jews who accordingly took the Muslim lands. The ancestral war reached its adverse conflict until the 21st century wherein the cobweb of hostile Afghan forces goes out of control. It cannot be said today to part ways with the alliance of US a nd the UK so that reducing risk of terrorist attacks.Development of preemptive measures or effective strategies to preventing terrorist attacks is outlined in the US and the UK economic, political, cultural platform of governance. These super power nations, including other countries of the European community, further collaborate with favorable international policies amongst countries that resist and abhor the Islamic terrorism. At this instance, the strategic stance of war on terrorism may have isolated, identified and singled out the terrorist block. Cushion A BlowAs the global alliances of Nations continue its fight against terrorism, respective countries of the world cushion a blow but with much strategic defense by empowering governance through economic development, political reforms and democratization. Somehow the militaristic approach to combating terrorism inflicts human error resulting casualties are but a little wound on the flesh of Nation that fight the real enemies of p eace and democracy. Some reported human errors, as likewise in pursuit of enforcement, become affliction to human rights.These flaws posit to be immediately addressed at a global scene. Assessing on the impact of the counter terrorism measures, the UK Office of the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs proposed a survey of selected countries of Australia, in Asia, Western Europe and Northern America. The survey called for a consultative process on the legal means and further legislation of the counter terrorism measures that each country is implementing.It cited its consideration that: â€Å"different countries, with differing political and legal traditions and systems, recognizing the particular threat posed by terrorism, have enacted a variety of measures to counter that threat. Approaches have varied and evolved over time in the face of a changing threat and changing terrorist tactics† (Counter Terrorism Legislation and Practice: A Survey of Selected Coun tries, October 2005). In similar development, a briefing paper from the Human Rights Watch organization in New York was submitted to the 59th session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) on March 23rd 2005.The briefing paper emphasizes that accordingly: â€Å"in fighting terrorism, however, governments must also ensure they meet their other obligations to their people by ensuring that counter-terrorist measures respect and do not violate international human rights, humanitarian, and refugee law† (In the Name of Counter-Terrorism: Human Rights Abuses Worldwide, Human Rights Watch). Likewise, a Handbook on Counter-Terrorism Measures has been produced by various organizations like the Independent Sector (IS), Inter Action (American Council for Voluntary International Action), Council on Foundations and Day, Berry and Howard Foundation.Apprehensions on the potential effect to human rights by committing human errors that may inflict abuse have drawn major impor tance in assessing the so-called winnings of war on terrorism. The incessant lobbying of human rights advocates to the peripheries of government corridors can be perceived as a positive-reactive-constructive attitude of the civilian populace in general. But somehow cushioning the blow to terrorist groups and its cohorts may be unfavorable to the strategic momentum, as the terrorist employs protracted tactics and has diverse capabilities.In this respect, the government effort to isolating risk and vulnerability of terrorist threats continuously and effectively launched civic actions, socio-economic-cultural activities in partnership with various sectors of society. A more consultative framework composing with the civil society rekindles collaborative efforts. References Report on Terrorist Incidents-2006, US National Counterterrorism Center, 30 April 2007; Terrorism in Southeast Asia: Threat and Response, Rohan Gunaratna, Hudson Institute, Center for Eurasian Policy Occassional Resea rch Paper, Series II (Islamism in Southeast Asia), No.1; Letter of Ricardo Alberto Arias, Chairman, Security Council Committee, United Nations, 20 November 2007; HM Government, Countering International Terrorism: The United Kingdom’s Strategy, July 2006; United States Intelligence Community, 100 Day Plan for Integration and Collaboration, Washington DC 20511; Procuring the Future 21st Century IC Acquisition, Terri Everett, DNI Senior Procurement Executive, Office of the Director of National Intelligence, January 8, 2008; ASEAN Convention on Counter Terrorism, document, Cebu, Philippines, January 13th 2007;Realities of the Conflict – Between Islam and Unbelief, Laura Mansfield, Full Transcript of Zawahiri Tape, December 20, 2006; Counter Terrorism Legislation and Practice: A Survey of Selected Countries, October 2005, www. fco. gov. uk; In the Name of Counter-Terrorism: Human Rights Abuses Worldwide, Human Rights Watch, www. hrw. org/un/chr59; Handbook on Counter-Terror ism Measures: What U. S. and Nonprofits and Grantmakers Need To Know, 15 March 2004, www. dbhfoundation. org.

Josephine Baker Biography

Josephine Baker was an American singer, dancer, and actress who rose to fame in France during the Harlem Renaissance: â€Å"a literary and intellectual flowering that fostered a new black cultural identity in the 1920s and 1930s†(Rowen). Josephine Baker was the first African American female to star in a movie, the only woman to speak during the March on Washington alongside of Martin Luther King Jr. , and the first black international pop icon (Lewis). Jo Baker is best known for, her â€Å"jungle banana dance†, where she danced naked except for a string of bananas tied around her waist. Born Freda Josephine McDonald, even though they were eventually divorced, Josephine Baker decided to keep the last name of her second husband, Willie Baker. Josephine ran away from home at the age of 13 to pursue her dream of being a famous dancer-singer but didn’t get her big break until she was discovered by director Folies Bergere in Paris. (Lewis) In 1951 at The Stork Club, New York City’s most extravagant night club at the time, Josephine was denied service because she was black (Lewis). That was the first time racial inequality directly impacted her. Josephine responded by refusing to entertain in clubs that did not allow blacks, in which several clubs responded with integration. She â€Å"crusaded for racial equality† again in 1963 when she spoke alongside of Martin Luther King Jr. during the March on Washington: the largest political rally for African American rights in United States history. Throughout the rest of her life, Josephine did many other things in protest of racial inequality, the most famous being her adoption of 12 multi-ethnic orphans (Gaines). Some say that Josephine started the trend of celebrities (ex: Angelina Jolie, Sandra Bullock, Steven Spielberg, Tom Cruise, and Hugh Jackman) adopting multi-ethnic orphans. Josephine has influenced the works of many modern day entertainers. Singer-songwriter Beyonce has given Josephine credit for being the inspiration of many of her performances throughout her career, including her re-make of Josephine’s famous banana dance for a performance of her song Deja Vu in 2006 (Gorgan). And in 2010, R&B recording artist Keri Hilson portrayed Josephine in her single â€Å"Pretty Girl Rock†. (MacKenzie) Works Cited Rowen, Beth. â€Å"The Great Days in Harlem†. Infoplease. Pearson Education. N. D. Web, 19 Dec. 2011. Lewis, Jone Johnson. â€Å"Josephine Baker†. About. com. About. com. N. D. Web, 19 Dec. 2011. Gaines, Steven. â€Å"Hungry Heart†. New York Magazine. New York Media LLC. 10 Apr. 2009. Web, 19 Dec. 2011. MacKenzie, Carina Adly. â€Å"Who is Josephine Baker? Meet the Legend who Inspired Keri Hilson’s ‘Pretty Girl Rock’†. Zap2it. Tribune Media Services. 21 Nov. 2010. Web, 19 Dec. 2011. Gorgan, Elena. â€Å"Going Bananas for Beyonce! †. SoftPedia. SoftNews Net SRL. 11 Sept. 2006. Web, 19 Dec. 2011. Criner, Lowe. â€Å"Josephinw Baker†. Plaza. Plaza Edu. N. D. Web, 19 Dec. 2011. â€Å"Josephine Baker – Breezin’ Along With the Breeze†. Youtube. Youtube. 7 Aug 2010. Web, 19 Dec. 2011. â€Å"Josephine Baker – Breezin’ Along With the Breeze Lyrics†. ST Lyrics. STLyrics. com. N. D. Web, 19 Dec. 2011.

Media history research paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Media history research paper - Essay Example Five categories of media were used in the interview namely sound recording, radio, television, movies, and print. Each category would be discussed later on in the paper together. (Name of interviewee) owned a magnetic tape and tape recorder which he used for listening to his favorite tracks. It was found in his living room. He also had a phonograph which he got from his grandfather. He said he was fascinated with the phonograph since it was the very first recorder ever invented. On top of that, Benjamin Franklin was the one who started it all so he appreciated so much the presence of the phonograph from his grandparents’ home before he got the phonograph. During the 1940s according to him, the famous songs were Run Rabbit Run and Were Gonna Hang Out The Washing On The Siegfried Line  by Flanagan and Allen, Lili Marlene  by Anne Shelton, Jukebox Saturday Night  by Glenn Miller & his orchestra, The Blackout Stroll  by Joe Loss & His Band, Aint Nobody Here But Us Chickens   by Louis Jordan & His Tympany 5 and Youre Driving Me Crazy by Charlie & his orchestra. Radio was still popular way back in the 1940s according to (name of interviewee). Television was already gaining popularity but many people still preferred to listen to the radio. He was able to remember how radio became a free medium and turned the music industry to the next level because more advertising can be done while people can freely enjoy the music. Some companies even did not allow their start to appear on radio. He also observed how the recordings became not very popular and lost some profits because of the booming business in radio. The interviewee cannot forget how the radio started in 1940 so he even shared some significant events: FM radio was demonstrated for the FFC the very first time, Fireside chat was broadcasted on National Defense and National Security and Charles de Gaulle, a general and

Leonardo Da Vinci Perpetual Machine Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leonardo Da Vinci Perpetual Machine - Assignment Example The model presented in the picture is probably the simplest among them, but it is definitely as good as others are. The main purpose of such layout was to create asymmetry using additional physical effects. This hypothetical perpetual wheel would revolve around its axis, and the metal pellets placed in the sections of the wheel would roll over, creating unevenness in load distribution and making the wheel keep on moving. However, eventually, Da Vinci admitted that the construction of a working perpetual machine is impossible. Commenting this conclusion, Da Vinci wrote that, interpreted into modern language, when the pellet (i.e. the weight) placed in one of the sections â€Å"moves farther from the pivot, the gravitational torque on it increases, but also the moment of inertia of the wheel is increased at the same time, which makes the gravitational torque less effective in increasing or sustaining motion of the wheel† (Simanek). In other words, the obtain effect is eventually zero. Moreover, Da Vinci concluded that every mechanical system inevitably loses its power through friction (Capra). Later, and especially at the dawn of the 20 century (intensive industrialization), the inventors tried to improve older prototypes of perpetual machines, but these attempts proved to be failure due to laws of physics (e.g. the principle of perpetual motion virtually violates two first laws of thermodynamics (Roy). In the end, the idea of a mechanism producing free energy without any outside sources or fuel was condemned as

Analyzing Jack Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analyzing Jack - Assignment Example However, immediately after moving in with him, trouble starts, as the man transforms into a different character. Not only does he physically and psychologically abuse the helpless boy, he also takes advantage of him, forcing him to sell newspapers and taking away the money, he made from the sales. Jack however shows resilience and hope of a better life, evidenced by his constant dreams that he had of a good life someday. In fact, his current life situation little affects him, as he seeks solace in his dreams and ambitions. It is due to his ambitions that he seeks to apply for a scholarship ion far off places. In his view, he believes that he will one day change his and his mother’s life. Compassionately, he takes care of his mother, despite his young age. Regardless of the problems that the two face, Jack shows extreme loyalty to his mother, with whom he ran away with. He is oblivious of his brother’s good education, understands that his father at that particular time h ad married a billionaire, and can thus afford to pay his school fees. However, he chooses to remain with his mother, their poor and desperate state, with high hopes that one day he would become a successful man. Choosing to remain with his mother, run away with her from his father shows the level of braveness in him. There is no particular indication that he had ever been to Utah previously. Thus, his choice to leave his only home and wander in the streets of a completely new town shows his brave nature. When they could not find uranium and his mother became desperate, she began a relationship with Mr. Dwight, who then appeared harmless and caring. Immediately after moving in with him, Jack realizes that the man was completely different of what they had thought him to be. He was an arrogant man, with an immense appetite to dominate other people. Moreover, he was abusive, physically and emotionally, yet Jack

Read the instruction (Different hobbies) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Read the instruction (Different hobbies) - Essay Example I enjoyed purchasing a parrot and then setting it free from the cage. As I grew up, I developed a hobby of planting trees. This was also a good hobby. I planted at least one tree every week in my surroundings. Another very good hobby that I have is reading books. I love reading books of all genres including fiction stories, poetry, novels, and dramas. I like reading children’s literature as well as adult literature. I believe that reading a variety of literature diversifies the reader’s opinion and broadens his vision. One bad hobby that I have had for a long time is playing video games. I have spent a lot of time aimlessly playing computer games. Undoubtedly, it might be a good idea if played for a short while, but not when one spends hours playing them. As I gained more education, I developed a hobby of teaching. I fancy the idea of being a teacher because it is one of the most respectable professions. A pedagogue teaches hundreds of students every year, which serves as a way to broaden his social network. The teacher remains updated on the latest discoveries in knowledge, and knowledge is power. Through this reflection, I have reached the conclusion that most of my hobbies are good and only a few can be classified as

The challenges of finding talent in pharmaceutical MNEs Essay

The challenges of finding talent in pharmaceutical MNEs - Essay Example Powell and Lubitsh (2007) conjecturally pointed out that talented human resource pool is the supportive pillar for organizations and organizations also know the fact that developing talent can benefit them in long term manner. Collings and Mellahi (2009) highlighted the importance of finding right talent for MNEs. According to these research scholars, MNEs maintains a large portfolio of business spanning in different countries and they need the intellectual and participatory help from its employees in order to incorporate innovation and adapt to changing environment. In addition, Cappelli (2008) also stated the same views; they claimed that if employees failed in their job, it means some parts of organization also fail. Therefore, finding appropriate talent is the major and minor premise in developing and retaining talent. Schuler et al. (2011) claimed that the talent challenges have become a significant human resource issue for global firms. The biggest problem is whether the organi zation is able to get the right people in the right place at the right time. Collings and Mellahi (2009) suggested that MNEs could not find their most talented employees and where they are located around the world. Abbasi et al. (2010) stated that talented human capital is the most organic and living asset for organization and there is no doubt that a firm can achieve competitive advantage by using the talented human capital. Abbasi et al. (2010) concentrated their study on pharmaceutical industry and came to the conclusion that finding talent in pharmaceutical industry is not an easy task. According to them, pharmaceutical industry is a sensitive industry in terms knowledge integration or technology integration. Developing a medicine needs sheer amount scientific knowledge and natural talent for innovation and unfortunately, very few pharmaceutical companies have the opportunity to access talented human resource pool (Abbasi et al., 2010). According to Richard (2001), number of pha rmaceutical MNEs has been increased in recent times due to increase in merger and acquisition activities. As result of this industry boom, need for talent has increased manifold for pharmaceutical MNEs in order to ensure smooth operation. Increasing labour market demand is cause of concern for pharmaceutical MNEs and interesting fact is that, McAlearney (2006) classified pharmaceutical industries as late adapter contemporary human resource management activities (HRM) such as training and development, global talent management (GMT) etc. In such context, it will be challenging for pharmaceutical MNEs to meet the labour market demand for talented professionals. Although, topic like ‘finding talent in pharmaceutical industry’ is exciting one but surprisingly very few researchers have tried to shed light on the topic from literary viewpoint. Apart from the research work of Abbasi et al. (2010), literature on â€Å"talent management in pharmaceutical Multinational Enterprise (MNE) is pretty scarce hence in this paper, the researcher will try shed some

Compare and contrast Kennedy and Reagon's Inaugural Address Essay

Compare and contrast Kennedy and Reagon's Inaugural Address - Essay Example However, only Reagan, by far the better man manages to achieve this. John Kennedy became President as a youngish man. America was dawning in the 1960s and they were swept up with enthusiasm. He noted in his inaugural speech that there was great promise, but also great danger ahead: The world is very different now. For man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life. And yet the same revolutionary beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe-the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state but from the hand of God. (110). He evokes God and purpose in his speech and it is powerful in its way. What is sad about his speech, however, is how his administration did not live up to the principles it espouses. Kennedy did very little as President. He spent much of his time leading an absolutely scandalous personal life, which surely proved a great distraction. He led America into the humiliating Bay of Pigs fiasco and nearly destroyed the world through Cuban Missile Crisis. He was not a man in touch with the people. He was a millionaire who was President as a kind of hobby. We dare not tempt them with weakness. For only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we be certain beyond doubt that they will never be employed. But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course-both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankinds final war. (110) In a sense this is similar to Reagan’s own political philosophy of building up America’s nuclear arsenal and defences. However, Reagan did this simultaneously while engaging in reasoned negotiations not brinksmanship. He knew what he was doing, while Kennedy was just playing at it. Flash forward

Stacey's view of Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Stacey's view of Organisations - Essay Example All this stems from one concept, the concept of complexity. This affects the way managers approach strategic management, chaos in their organisation and in managing the complex responsive processes that form the basic interaction between the people. "Strategic management is the process of actively participating in the conversations around important emerging issues. Strategic direction is not set in advance but understood in hindsight as it is emerging or after it has emerged." (Stacey 2003, Ch:17, p 15). Stacey's approach to the organizational structure as a complex adaptive systems which are analogous to viewing them as a combination of complex responsive processes, modifies the approach of the manager to a great extent. According to Stacey, since the organisation is formed too many complex factors, the extent to which the happening in the organisation can be predicted is very low. Every organisation is individualistic. The self organising experience of the organisations tends to make them evolve into a form of their own. Every individual who make up the organisation responds in his or her own way making the organisation all the more complex. Therefore, Stacey suggests, that it is highly impossible for a manager to create a clear target for the organisation and move towards it (Stacey 2001). It is quite possible for the company to get affected by the varied factors and the target itself could get diluted. This concept is also reinforced by other writers. Strategy is structured chao s, says Shona Brown and Kathleen Eisenhardt (1998). Whether the manager looks at the organisation from an external position or from the internal position, the chaos in the company has influence on the way the work is done in the company. This also affects the decisions and the interactions, thereby making the strategy an evolving concept rather than one fixed strategy that would move towards an achievement. More often, according to Stacey, modelling theories tend to treat the number of factors that affect the chaotic behaviour in an impersonal way; whereas, all these are highly subjective and tend to vary with the people and their moods. This has to be taken into consideration when deciding on the strategy of the organisation that is to be worked out. There can possibly be an overall plan or objective or mission and the methodology to achieve the same could be evolved as the work progresses. Sometimes this evolution could also occur when a problem comes up. All this implies that there will continue to exist, the control and targeted m anagement in the organisation; however, organisations cannot survive by following a blue print. Instead, it is the spontaneous self-organisation that moves it forward. (Stacey 2003, Ch:13 p 19). Stacey's Alternatives Stacey suggests a number of alternatives to the managers. These alternatives under the chaotic condition that most of the organisations tend to be in, are the following: 1. In the ever changing context that the businesses are in, it is essential for the manager to take a different perspective on various common aspects that make up the world of change. 2. Stacey views, mind itself can be thought of as a set of complex responsive processes, making it a subset of the organisation. With numerous people making up the organisation and every person is a set of complex

Can a solution to persistent conflict in the eastern DRC be found Essay - 1

Can a solution to persistent conflict in the eastern DRC be found through addressing 'local antagonisms' and 'local grievances', as Severine Autesserre suggests - Essay Example Instead of seeking long term solutions, Autesserre (2008) argues, these peace finders have only been making temporary peace trials after which conflicts emerge again. Their role has been to treat the wounds but not focusing on terminating the causative agents once and for all. Autesserre (2008), after providing a comprehensive history of wars and conflicts in the Eastern Provinces of Congo, suggests that permanent solutions can only be found if local antagonisms and grievances are addressed. Autesserre brings forward the view that those intervening have mistaken locally triggered turbulence as a national and or international issue whereof only humanitarian interventions for temporary healing of the casualties have been imposed. This paper attempts to argue in line Autesserre’s standing. The discussion critically addresses the nature of the problem in Congo – as explained by various authors – to estimate the truth in Autesserre’s suggestions. Later, the study defines what exactly the government of Congo needs to ensure local issues – as raised by Autesserre (2008) – are successful tools in pacifying Eastern Congo. The arguments are made in realization that, anyhow, there must be some solution, a unique solution (Yenyi, 2010). In the previous efforts to bring peace in the Congo, there have been various challenges and mammoth spending but in the end, the war starts all over again. It is obvious there are roots to the intermittent animosity that keeps recurring, much to the loss of many lives on a daily basis, loss of properties, misappropriation of natural resources, and the general deterioration of humanity. Therefore, all indications point to the prevalence of speci fic causes of violence that have never been addressed, or at least the wrong approaches have been in use. So the problem is extraordinary and as so, it will call for extraordinary measures as suggested in Autesserre findings (2008). Certainly, Autesserre’s idea is appealing,

Jews and Chapter Essay Example for Free

Jews and Chapter Essay 1. Elie’s first impression of the camp at Buna was that it looked empty and dead as if an epidemic had hit. 2. Elie and his father have to work in a factory where they fix electrical circuits. 3. The Jewish dentist is caught stealing the prisoner’s gold teeth and was ordered to be hung. 4. The part of Elie’s body that is aware of the passage of time is his stomach because he goes a long time without getting anything to eat. 5. Idek accused Elie’s father of being lazy and not doing his job. Elie just sits there and watches silently. 6. The dentist from Warsaw uses a rusty old spoon to extract Elie’s gold crown. 7. Elie is whipped by Idek an amount of 25 times for leaving his area of work. 8. The ones who bombed Buna were the Americans. 9. The pipel is hanged because he was found under the possession of weapons. 10. The pipel’s hanging was different from any others because everybody loved the pipel. He also suffered and died slowly. Chapter 5: 1. During the prayer being said for Rosh Hashanah, Elie refuses to fast and thinks that God has forgotten about them and since then starts to lose his faith in him. 2. Elie feels abandoned by God and imagines a world without mankind. 3. According to the veterans of Buna, they say that it is like a little paradise because there were selections every week that were very brutal. They would also suffer a lot of cold because they didn’t get the warm clothes and blankets. 4. The thing the prisoners fear the most at the camp are the selections. 5. Dr. Mengele is t one who is in charge of the selections. 6. The inheritance Elie’s father gives him just in case he doesn’t make it through the second selection is a knife and an old spoon. 7. When Elie made the statement, he meant that Hitler had kept his promise of killing all of the Jewish people, and God had not kept his promise of helping them. 8. Elie and his father decided to evacuate with the others because they thought the sick ones were going to be sent to the crematorium. Elie later found out they were liberated by the Russians. If he and his father had stayed, they would have been liberated at that time as well. 9. The wooden floor of the barrack is cleaned before they leave because the SS want the Red Army to know that men had been living there, not pigs. 10. Whether or not Elie should fast. Chapter 6: 1. The prisoners have to run for hours, and if anybody fails to keep up, they are shot. It was also very cold and windy. 2. Zalman can’t continue to march because he felt like his stomach was going to explode. 3. The presence of his father gives Elie the strength to continue the march because he feels like his father is his â€Å"soul support. † 4. The violin is so important to Juliek because it is the only thing he loves to do the most. 5. Juliek playing Beethoven’s concerto was so important because he had not been able to play it before, and there, he played out his life and a tribute to everyone. 6. When he said that, he was referring to the broken violin. Chapter 7: 1. When he woke up, he thought his dad was dead because he was not moving. 2. Elie, years later, asks a woman not to throw out money to the poor because it reminded him of the pieces of bread being thrown into the cattle car by a man. It was so bad a son killed his own father for a tiny piece of bread. 3. It is horrific because everyone is so hungry they are fighting for a little piece of bread and the men have become like beasts. It is sad because a father was killed by his own son. 4. Elie and his father end up going to Buchenwald. Chapter 8: 1. Elie is angry because his father wanted to sleep, but if he went to sleep, he would die. 2. Elie started thinking like the rabbi’s son when he had promised himself he would never do that. He thought it would be easier if his father died, that way he would only need to take care of himself. 3. While Elie’s father is sick, he tries to help him by giving him his ration of soup and bread, while he also watched him instead of going to work and stuff. 4. When Elie’s father keeps asking for water, he is struck and beat by the SS. Chapter 9: 1. After the death of his father, Elie feels that there is no longer any valid reason to keep living. 2. The Germans are concerned with liquidating the cap and evacuating the prisoners because they do not want other countries to see what they are doing to the Jewish population. 3. The thing that stops the final evacuation of the camp is the resistance movement. 4. After they are liberated, all the Jews wanted to eat since they had gone six days without food. 5. At the end of the novel, Elie’s reflection stares back at him and he describes his image as a living corpse.

Episodic Memory: Definition and Theories

Episodic Memory: Definition and Theories FRITZ Claudia KRENN Nora SCHALLEHN Anna Episodic memory is defined as a memory for personal unique past experience. Experimental approaches with diverse species were done in order to test for the â€Å"what where and when† of some unique recent event. These experiments provide convergent evidence that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals, which is the main focus of this essay. The memory in general is divided into two parts – procedural and declarative memory. Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory. Episodic memory is the latest kind of memory to develop and the first to degenerate with age. When it was first discussed by Tulving in 1972 he proposed a distinction between episodic and semantic memory, knowing versus remembering. Episodic memory was defined primarily as a memory for personal unique past experience that is what happened, where and when, also known as the WWW theory. According to Tulving â€Å"episodic memory receives and stores information about temporally dated episodes or events, and temporal-spatial relations among these events.† In contrast, semantic memory is the knowledge of general facts, a structured record of details, concepts and skills that we have acquired. It is used as an aid in placing episodic events in time. Semantic information is derived from accumulated episodic memory. Episod ic memory can be thought as a map that ties together items in semantic memory. For example, memory for the experience of dinner at Luigi’s Restaurant last Saturday night is episodic whereas knowledge about what was involved in having dinner at a restaurant in general is semantic. Furthermore supported by evidence that some people with hippocampal damage have semantic but not episodic memory, the definition of episodic memory evolved to emphasize its conscious component, a feeling of re-experiencing the remembered event which is also known as autonoetic consciousness (Tulving 2002). It enables an individual to be aware of the self in a subjective time. It is further claimed to be part of a uniquely human faculty of â€Å"mental time travel,† the ability to mentally project oneself into the future as well as into the past. How does mental time travel the reconstruction of past events work? Imagine the last presentation you gave? Do you remember the audience’s rea ction? You might have snapshots of what the scene looked like. But this imagery does not tend to unfold in an orderly fashion from start to end. Extensive research on episodic memory clearly shows that we do not simply press the rewind button – we actively reconstruct past events from the gist or from visual snapshots, but draw heavily on our general semantic knowledge. We tend to reconstruct in ways that help justify our current attitudes. Let us get back to Tulving’s proposal. Do we agree on the aspect that humans are alone in their ability to recall about the past and imagine the future? Some argue that language is the key difference between humans and animals and that episodic memory can only emerge in an organism that possesses language. However, there have been efforts to demonstrate episodic memory in animals. In one attempt pigeons were taught a language in order to respond to an unexpected question. Furthermore, a fundamental question in comparative cognition is whether animals remember unique personal past experiences. It has long been argued that memories for specific events, known as episodic memory, are unique to humans. We know that animals from dolphins to monkeys can learn from single events. But do they revisit the events that shaped their past? Innovative work by Clayton and Dickson has produced perhaps the strongest case yet for the WWW memory in animals. The animals’ memory is referred to as episodic-like because it satisfies the original definition of episodic memory for what, where and when but without any evidence of autonoetic consciousness. Clayton and Dickinson (1998) where the first ones who tried to demonstrate the discrimination of WWW in scrub jays (Aphelocoma coerulescens). The birds got to cache perishable peanuts on one side of a storage tray and non-perishable wax worms on the other side. Two caching phases were separated by 120 hours. The birds either cached peanuts followed by worms or the other way round. After four hours they were allowed to recover the stored items. Before the actual test phase, one group of the birds learned that worms decay over time, thus after the four hours gap they directed their first inspection to the worm side. After the 124 hours gap the worms had already perished and the birds turned to the peanut side first. To validate that the preference for the peanuts on the longer trial was not because the scrub jays simply forgot where the worms were, the group was compared to a second group. This group learned that the worms never decay as they where removed immediately after caching and replaced by fresh ones. As a result all birds of this group inspected the worm side of the tray in both the short and the long trial first. In conclusion the switch from worm side to peanut side by birds in the first group can only be explained by recalling what items were cached, where they were stored and when they were cached, which is evidence for episodic-like memory. Not only scrub jays but also rats were used for experiments for testing the â€Å"WWW†-theory. This was done by Babb and Crystal (2005), using the circadian rhythm. Critics stated however, that this could not be seen as a proof for â€Å"when† since the rats’ biological rhythm is responsible for the â€Å"when†. As a consequence Babb and Crystal (2006) modified the experiment, controlling for the time of day. The rats however could still accomplish the trials. It is therefore called episodic-like memory. In an experiment by Roberts et al. (2008), rats were tested if their memory is based on when or how long ago a specific event occurred. The results clearly displayed that rats use elapsed time as a cue for when an event happened. In terms of the definition of episodic-like memory the conditions for â€Å"what-where-when† were fulfilled in these types of experiments. However in terms of the definition of episodic memory the evidence of autonoetic con sciousness is missing. Subsequently one can argue that those experiments had long training phases and the animals learned therefore rules on how to behave in certain situations. This could be declared as semantic memory. A different approach to test episodic-like memory in animals was done by Zentall et al. (2001). In this study, the aim was to avoid the possibility for the tested animals to solve the task because of a lot of experiences with the â€Å"rules† of the task and thus form semantic memory. This was done by asking them nonverbally unexpected questions. Therefore the eight tested pigeons were forced to travel back in their minds. To test the pigeons, Zentall et al. used a study design with multiple phases. At first, the pigeons had a language training where they learned to respond to the question â€Å"did you just peck?† They were shown one of two different symbols. At the symbol with vertical lines they would peck and at the one with horizontal lines they would refrain from pecking. The demonstrated symbol was followed by a red and a green light. After pecking the choice of the red light was reinforced. After refraining from pecking the choice of the green light was reinforc ed. Now the red light can be seen as the answer â€Å"yes† and the green light as the answer â€Å"no† to the question â€Å"Did you just peck?† In the next phase they learned to peck at one of a new pair of symbols without being asked about what they had just done. However in the test phase they were confronted for the first time with the red and green comparisons after the interaction with a new symbol. They were also tested with a symbol where they would spontaneously peck at and the absence of a symbol, so that they would not peck. And again they were asked whether they had just pecked. In both cases they chose the right answer in about seventy percent of the first four test trials, which is above chance. This study outcome speaks in favor of episodic-like memory in pigeons. Zentall et al. (2001) could demonstrate, that the pigeons were able to retrieve knowledge of recent experiences on unexpected request. Additionally, further research displayed, that the pigeons did not solve the task through proprioceptive cues (Singer and Zentall 2007, as cited in Crystal). However the pigeons had to remember only their actions for a few seconds, while humans are able to remember episodes for a long time or even a lifetime. So studies on what-where-when memory with integration of unexpected questions could lead to stronger evidence (Crystal 2010). Experiments testing for episodic-like memory in animals were moreover done with Dolphins. Mercado et al. (1998, as cited by Zentall et al.) demonstrated that these animals were capable to remember their actions by asking them to perform a certain behavior they had done most recently or a performance they had not recently done. Studies with pigeons as well as with dolphins indicate therefore that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals. Since the tests were done with diverse species, it might be that this form of memory represents a general capacity in animals. All the experimental approaches discussed in our presentation involve testing for the what where and when of some unique recent event. As discussed, these experiments provide convergent evidence that processes similar to episodic memory occur in animals. This kind of memory is now known as â€Å"episodic like† memory rather than episodic memory because it satisfies the original definition of episodic memory defined by Tulving as a memory for what where and when of a unique experience but without any evidence of autonoetic consciousness. Additionally, the series of studies raised doubt about the claim, mental time travel being unique to humans. Therefore the variety of approaches that have developed might be taken as a welcome evidence of a search for convergent data but they also reflect the fact that no one approach to date has captured all aspects of human episodic memory in another species. Knowing now all the definitions and experimental approaches one could come up with t he question â€Å"why is it important to have the ability of episodic memory?† The answer is that there is no selective advantage to reconstruct the past per se, unless it matters for the present or future. It is proposed that episodic reconstruction is just an adaptive design feature of the future planning system such as building a nest. References Babb, S. J., and J. D. Crystal. 2005. Discrimination of what, when and where: Implications for episodic-like memory in rats. Learning Motivation 36: 177-189. Babb, S. J., and J. D. Crystal. 2006. Discrimination of what, when, and where is not based on time of day. Learning Behaviour 34(2): 124-130. Clayton, N. S., and A. Dickinson. 1998. Episodic-like memory during cache recovery by scrub jays. Nature 395: 272-274. Cognition, Evolution and Behavior (pp. 249-256) Crystal, J.D. (2010). Episodic-like memory in animals. Behavioural Brain Research, 215 (2), 235–243. Mercado E. et al. (1998). Memory for recent actions in the bottlenosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): Repetition of arbitrary behaviors using an abstract rule. Animal Learning Behavior, 26, 210-218. (cited in Zentall, T.R. et al. (2001). Roberts, W. A., M. C. Feeney, K. MacPherson, M. Petter, N. McMillan, and E. Musolino. 2008. Episodic-like memory in rats: Is it based on when or how long ago?. Science 320: 113-115 Suddendorf T. and Busby J. Mental time travel in animals? Early Cognitive Development Unit, School of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane Singer, R.A. and Zentall, T.R. (2007). Pigeons learn to answer the question ‘where did you just peck?’ and can report peck location when unexpectedly asked. Learning Behavior, 35, 184–189. (cited in Crystal, J.D. (2010) Tulving, E. 1972. Episodic and semantic memory. In Organization of memory, ed. Tulving, E., and W. Donaldson. New York: Academic Press. Zentall, T.R. et al. (2001). Episodic-like memory in pigeons. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 8 (4), 685-690.

Socialisation Is A Fundamental Sociological Concept Sociology Essay

Socialisation Is A Fundamental Sociological Concept Sociology Essay Socialisation is a fundamental sociological concept as it is the way we learn to be a functioning part of the society we are in, how to become a member of the group. Socialisation starts from the moment we are born and there are many arguments that help to show how such socialisation is a continuous process. It continues throughout our lives to help us fit into and be accepted into the many groups within society that we encounter during our lifetime or to just adjust to the changes in our existing community. Although an Important social topic that affects all members of society at one time, widespread mainstream literature concerning gender socialisation is difficult to come by. As mentioned, socialisation starts from the day we are born, the very start, so to help understand socialisation as a whole, developing an understanding of some of its parts is helpful. For this piece of work I shall be focusing on gender socialisation and the impact it has on an individuals socialisation into society. The concept of gender socialisation helps us to understand how the notion of gender, what is expected of individuals as males and females in society and how much it matters. Throughout examining literature for this topic I hope to gain a better understanding of what academic sociologist have to say on this topic. The aim is to try to Identify important factors that impact gender socialisation and what literature is current on a similar topic. Has there been a change in attitude to such gendered socialisation and the idea or construction of gender? What are these and how are these developing; I.e. gendered parenting/modern schooling? I also would like to explore nature vs. nurture/boy vs. girl/male vs. female. What are these titles and how are they explained in a sociological way. I hope to gain a greater concept of gender theories and what is already known about my chosen topic. To help to develop my understanding of sociological explanations for gender socialisation I have approached several academic texts to help guide and aid my understanding. The first book that I revised is The Paradoxes of Gender (1999) by Judith Lorber. Written by Feminist and sociologist Lorber I found that this book challenges the basic idea we may hold of gender and its construction. Lorber argues that gender is a social fact constructed wholly by socialisation. Lorber also notes that gender is also a social institution, comparable to religion, the economy and the family as with it follows consequences and social significance. As a feminist Lorbers work focuses on the need for gender and how it is an inevitable fact that is important not only for the identity of an individual but also for societys construction. While I initially focused on Lorbers Text for a main point of reference I also followed up with works such as Women, Men and Society (1999) Renzetti and Curran, The Gender T rap (2012) Emily W Kane. These texts form the primary reading for this lit review. I supplemented these with more classical theory books such as Marx, Weber, Durkheim and Classical Sociological theory (2006) What is gender socialisation? There are many different theories of how gender socialisation happens and how/when it occurs. To help understand gender socialisation, an attempt at a definition is helpful. In its simplest form gender socialisation is how an individual learns and accepts the expected gender norms and values of the culture and society they are born into. Through this education they begin to develop a sense of identity and their ideas of gender become internalised and guide their behaviour. The Paradoxes of Gender (1994) attempts to explore all areas of Gender and the influences they have on gender identity and wider gender influences. To help with gender socialisation there are ideas within the wider concept that help to make up a persons gender socialisation. Lorber sees Gender norms as a set of rules appropriate for males and females; they are a set of expectations these expectations help to dictate how men and women are labelled, and therefore how they should behave. The rules and expectations follow on to become internalised and help to forma gender identity, which leads us to the second point highlighted to help gain an understanding of gender socialisation; Gender identity. Sociologists make a clear distinction between gender and sex. A persons sex is biological determined and gender is culturally learnt. Gender identity goes beyond just recognising the physical biological gender characteristics belonging to male and female and identifying them from each other. Gender identity is in fact an internal personal conception of how an individual view themselves as male or female. Gender cannot be equated with biol ogical and physiological differences between human males and females. The building blocks of gender are socially constructed. (Lorber 1994:17) How gender socialisation impacts Individuals life choices. Gender socialisation impacts all areas of social life and therefore does in fact make it an important topic of study. The way an individual is socialised in terms of their gender has an overall impact on daily life including that of social self, self-concept and the way we conduct personal relationships with others and the perceptions we make. Family, friends, social peers and outside uncontrollable sources are all agents through which socialisation occurs. Religion, mass media education and pop culture are becoming ever increasingly influential over socialisation and how an individual views themselves in respect to their gender. Boys and girls are treated different right from birth, this treatment is often primarily from members of their own environment, such as their parents, siblings and extended families, and the way they are treated helps them to learn the distinction between being male or female. Most parents create a gendered world for their new-born by naming, birth announcem ents and dress. Childrens relationships with same-gendered and different-gendered caretakers structure their self-identifications and personalities (Lorber 1994:25).Similar to The Paradoxes of Gender (2004), Men, Women and Society (2002) also addresses the many aspects of what we see as gender. One of the most interesting research topics explored in this book is the concept of how outside choices influence a childs gender socialisation. This is quite often transmitted through simple gestures such as the selection of gender based toys or giving a child a gender based task Research does show that children express gender based toy preferences as early as one year of age, but their toy choices may have been inspired even earlier by parental encouragement (Renzetti and Curran1999;74). These seemingly insignificant acts do in fact play a large part in the socialisation of children, and as a result how they develop their gender identity, and therefore their ender socialisation. A common th eme throughout all the literature based around gender, explore varying influences on what is gender and how it constructed. Nature vs Nurture vs gender identity. An influential and on-going debate amongst sociologists is the argument of the importance of nature vs. nurture in terms of gender socialisation. This ever evolving debate attempts to discover how a biological identity differs over individuals social surroundings to develop a gender identity. A biological and genetic gender identity fuels the nature area of debate whereas society and external influences help to form the idea of nurture. Many argue that to efficiently form an active gender identity, there must be a significant influence from either nature or nurture, but the question continues as to which is more influential, if either. In the Journal article The Nature of Gender Udry attempts to distinguish between what is sex; and what is gender. Gender is the relationship between biological sex and behaviour; a theory of gender explains the relationship. A gendered behaviour is the one that defines sex (Udry 1994;561). This idea and the theme of this article help to highlight my in itial argument about discussing how gender is a social construction. Sex is a given but a persons gender can be perceived differently dependant on how they behaviour. My project will attempt to further this idea by looking into how this behaviour is shaped and learnt. Children start to come into contact with such norms that define what it is to be masculine or feminine. What is acceptable or unacceptable behaviour is placed upon them in both conscious and unconscious ways. Young boys are taught not to show high emotion, to be strong and powerful whereas girls are showed how to be forgiving, docile and ladylike. If a child shows to be going against such expected norms then there is the chance that they can expected to be ostracised from their community or culture, or treated badly. In exceptional circumstances some cultures limit access to basic human rights such as nutrition health care. The treatment of genders in some cultures can also help to reinforce a separate gender identity, for examples in many third world cultures, girls have both different legal and ethical access to education so therefore go on to expect to be treated differently from boys, all based on their gender identity. Toy selection and clothing although seemingly innocent can i n fact play a crucial part in gender socialisation. Clothing plays a significant part in gender socialisation. As children become mobile, certain types of clothing encourage certain or discourage particular behaviours or activities (Renzetti and Curran 2002; 70) by this Renzetti and Curran refer to the idea that the way a child is dressed can influence their expected gender identity. For example a female child dressed in a soft, flowing or lace detailed dress would be expected to behave more soft and gentle compared to a male child in Denim jeans who would be accepted for rough and tumble behaviour. The Psychological and Biological explanations for gender. To develop a greater understanding of sociological explanations for gender socialisation it is also important to compare and contrast the arguments raised to those of another discipline. As Urdy notes it is important to consider new schools of thinking as social science stems from such thoughts. It is also impossible to study gender without noting the biological differences of human beings. Gender has biological foundations (Udry 1994 ; 571) One of the most prominent theories about gender acknowledgement comes from the school of psychology. Sigmund Freuds work focused on the importance of childhood and the experience that children experience that children gain throughout it, especially in relation to their gender. Freud noted that gender development is an unconscious experience that occurs through forming a bond with a parental figure. Although this project will focus on primarily the sociological explanations for gender socialisation many texts touch upon further academic disciplines who discuss the construction of gender. It is therefore important to include such references into my project, due to the reference through the literature I have reviewed. Societys expectations. Societys expectations of male and female positions within society have also changed over time. Throughout this project I hope to investigate the suggestion that societies tolerant of the changing gender of identity of females has become more positive. A rise in females in the workplace, taking on stereotypical male occupations (fire fighter, police force, and, engineer) and asserting dominance in regards to their position throughout society. Family socialisation can be seen to encourage female children to display characteristically male but male children are often scorned from displaying any stereotypical female behaviour. Girls are accepted even if they prefer to play with male orientated toys, if they were trousers or show an interest in rough and tumble but if a male child played with baby dolls or wore a dress may experience more negative reaction from society. Parents, through primary socialisation, can be seen to be more likely to encourage their daughters to these masculine qu alities then allow their sons to display feminine qualities (Van Volkon 2003) Here Van Volkon gives weight to the importance primary socialisation, through their family can have on a child. The role of women is seen to be changing in contemporary society, but does this mean that the main social gender identity is getting left behind? Conclusion. Looking at gender sociologically helps to reveal societal and cultural proportions of something that is generally thought of as biologically fixed. It helps us to understand how individuals are in a new viewpoint and to help raise and in the end answer new issues and debates surrounding gender. Throughout this project I hope to uncover answers to sociologically questions such as is gender culturally learnt? I am also interested in uncovering how important, or how much influence the family have on gender socialisation, especially in relation to children and childhood. To help with this the work of Emily Kane in The Gender Trap (2012) has proved useful. By conducting Interviews and observations of families, parents and children this literature helps to give empirical backing to the texts I have read throughout this review. Gender socialisation and how it is understood is an ongoing sociological question. Above is a brief overview of what literature I have found useful to attempt to study the subject of gender socialisation. As society can be seen as every changing I am interested in what such change, if any has on the construction and notion of gender. As understood throughout the literature reviewed modern institutions, such as education and the family, have great influence on society and how its individuals are taught how to fit in. Ideas and the construction of gender are constant with more radical forms of socialisation occurring i.e. gender neutral parenting and its societal impact. Not all the literature I have come across has proved useful to my project research, but this has allowed me to learn mistakes that previous research uncovered and helped to give my research direction and fresh thinking for future research. Throughout wider reading, I have concluded that using more contemporary sources and academic texts helped to give my research weight and productive reference. Introduction. The aim of this paper is to examine the influence that family has on gender development and the socialisation process. It will focus on how family influence can affect the construction of gender identity in children from birth through to the first year in primary schooling, around 5-6 years of age and also how the process of socialisation impacts parents. I shall attempt to examine both primary and secondary influences that can shape the gender identity of a family. The first part of this paper shall look at how becoming a parent can force an individual to have an influence on the gender identity of another and how this process may change their existing gender identity. Secondly this paper shall attempt to examine how the primary socialisation process impacts female children compared with male children. Society and its actors view the world through a series of lenses: those lenses can include class, race, age and gender. Society is full of stereotypes and the expectations that come with them. Social actors have little choice but to be subjected to learning these expectations and to submit to the influence they have on their personal identity. From childhood to adulthood our identity is constantly being reinforced as to what our culture and society wants and sees as acceptable. These stereotypes are expected of everyone but in fact may not be fair to all members of society. As they move through childhood, children are influenced by those that they interact with and are taught right from birth what it is to be a successful member of society. To understand the sociological concept concerned with the construction of gender, it is important to comprehend first of all the factors that influence ones gender construction. The continuing aim of this paper is to show that it is possible to identify different areas of gender socialization, which vary in their impact on children and those around them, which are essential to build up a gender identity. The best way to understand the concept of gender is to gain a basic knowledge of the concept it. From a structural perspective, gender is seen as the division of individuals within a society into contrasting and complementary social categories; boys and girls into men and women. In this conceptualisation, gendering in the process and a gendered social order can be seen to be the product of some kind of social construction (Lorber, 1994). Gender based norms can be defined as what we expect from males and females within society whereas gender stereotypes can be seen as how a society generalizes these expectations. Gender based stereotypes are generally first thought of being taught in the home, which are later reinforced by peer interactions, education and schooling, as well as widespread media contact. It can be seen that the family unit does in fact have the largest influence on a childs gender development. Their family members, parents in particular, overtly and covertly teach their child gender roles and reinforce the ideas of gender that they hold about themselves. Both socialisation, primary and secondary, cultural expectations and given biological attributes are all seen to influence an individuals gender identity and as a result has a significant effect on their personal identity. Vuorinen Tuunala, (1997) noted that Socialisation is the process, through which the child becomes an individual respecting his or hers environments laws, norms and customs. (pg45) From this, socialisation can be seen as a fundamental sociological concept and therefore is an important area of analysis. It is the way that individuals learn to be a functioning part of society and how to become an accepted member of the social group in which they are living amongst. Socialisation starts from the moment we are born and it is seen as a continuous process. It carries on throughout our lives, to help us fit and be accepted into the many groups within society that we encounter during our lifetime or to simply adjust to the changes in our existing community. The educational function that Murdock refers to, can also be termed socialisation. The family has the responsibility of transmitting a societys way of life, norms and values to the younger members. This function is an important one as, wi thout culture, the society could not survive, and too much deviation from the norm would disrupt the stability of the society. Classical sociology has also be long concerned with the process known as socialisation. Talcott Parsons (1959) has written about the functions of the family and identified two functions that he perceives as being basic and irreducible. For Parsons, the family provided primary socialisation of children and as a result, produced the stabilisation of the personalities within adults amongst wider society. [Haralambos Holborn, 2000, p.509] How children become socialised into different characters can be based on their sex. Through this more focused form of socialisation, boys and girls are repeatedly taught what it means to be male or female and what gender roles will be expected of them is termed gender socialisation (Giddens, 1993). Although it is an important social topic that affects all members of society at one time, widespread mainstream literature concerning gender socialisation is difficult to come by. There are many different theories of how gender socialisation happens and how or when it occurs. The two main theories I shall touch upon within this paper are social learning theory and as a follow on to this, social identification theory. These two theories are concerned with the development of gender identity and attempt to explain how the environment around an individual can influence their personal and social gender identity. Social learning theory proposes, established by Bandura (1971) that both gender identity and gender role are learned through a process including observation, imitation, punishment and reinforcement. On the other hand, social identification theory developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979) as a response to Bandura is based upon the notion that an individual portrays certain behaviours or an identity that reflects the social group to which they belong, to help them adapt and adopt the ways of the group. In its simplest form, gender socialisation is how individuals learn and accept the expected gender norms and values of the culture and society they are born into. Through this education they begin to develop a sense of identity and their ideas of gender become internalised and guide their behaviour. The mass media, wide spread social norms, environmental factors such as living conditions and even language distribute the stereotypes which influence social behaviour and therefore what is expected from gender in society. These external factors contribute to categorizing members of society and placing social label upon them. Examples of labels can include race, class and most importantly for this paper, gender. A shared stereotype is when an expected behaviour or conformity is mutual and accepted by all members of the social group, the way that individuals interpret this label determines how well they are accepted into their social group. Such gender stereotypes can be seen as a set of rules appropriate for males and females. These rules help to guide how males and females are labelled by their social group and indicate how they should behave, expectations become internalised and form an individuals gender identity. Separate stereotypes are linked to male and female members of society, with no two overlapping. Men are seen to be strong and emotionless whilst women are expected to show their emotions and are seen as submissive and gentle. For example, if a woman is seen to cry at an emotional moment in a movie, in a public cinema for instance, no individual around her would glance or question it, but if a male viewer was seen to cry openly and express such intense emotion, he may be exposed to ridicule or judgement. How fair this situation may be is often debated. For this paper the question of how such judgements occur will attempt to be answered. Why have social actors been encouraged to accept such stereotypes as a given? Why do individuals therefore find themselves accepting these roles for themselves? To understand gender identity it is important to make a distinction between sex and gender. Sex involves the biological and physical differences between men and women, whilst gender is culturally and socially learnt. Terminology such as male and female are sex based categories; however masculine and feminine are gendered categories. An individuals sex is a biological fact that is the same in any culture or society, nonetheless sex categorisation means, in terms of gender role as man or woman, can be viewed extremely differently across cultures ( WHO 2013). These gender roles can have a lasting impact in an individuals public and private identity. Although often used interchangeably, sex and gender are clearly different characteristics. Gender involves social customs, attributes and behaviours whereas sex can be seen as a more personal demonstration of such characteristics. In its simplest form sex is biological and gender is sociological. Gender role is seen sociologically as the characteristics and behaviours that society can attribute to the sexes. What it means to be a real man, in any society requires a male to be both recognised biologically as a man plus what the culture of that society defines as masculine characteristics and behaviours, likewise a real woman needs biological female attributes and feminine characteristics. Such stereotypical features are clearly defined for each sex, with those who break such guidelines being seen as deviant, outcasts in their given society. This paper will look further into what are expected gender behaviours and the sociological explanations for these expected personas. Gendered differences can depend on the given society and the cultural values, economic system, history and family structures that it holds, and are thoroughly maintained through these mediums. As a result of this a continuous loop-back effect between so called gendered institutions and the social construction of gender within individuals can be seen to exist (West and Zimmerman 1987) Gender identity goes beyond just recognising the physical biological gender characteristics belonging to male and female and identifying them from each other. Gender identity is in fact an internal and personal conception of how individuals view themselves as male or female and therefore how they conduct their actions within society. Gender cannot be equated with biological and physiological differences between human males and females. The building blocks of gender are socially constructed (Lorber 1994:17). As a social group, communities are embedded with gender, all members experience gender constructed experiences throughout their childhood, adolescence and eventually adulthood. These experiences are reproduced in and through those that they interact with. To what extent individuals accept the expected gender roles they are shown is debateable although no matter how much or how little they see themselves as masculine or feminine, gender can still influence their day to day existence. British sociology saw the only significant form of stratification within any given society was that of class. The term gender wasnt mentioned in early sociological thought, with any reference to difference between men and women categorised and referred to as sex. Sex being considered as an important and influential sociological concept only came into consideration with the emerging and developing feminist perspectives of the 1970s. Feminists had to fight through traditional theories to change existing thought on the concept of differences and inequalities brought about by an individuals gender and sex identity. Socialisation is a fundamental sociological concept and can be applied to many areas of society that are seen as important to sociological study. As highlighted earlier, socialisation is defined as the way in which an individual learns to become part of a group, including wider civilization, as well as their small immediate environment and community. Socialisation begins the moment an individual is born, and they encounter different degrees of the process throughout all their life stages in order to help them adapt to each and every social group they encounter. Socialisation also helps to equip a social actor with the tools they need to cope and bend with any changes that may occur within their existing social group. Given the importance of socialisation within the discipline of sociology as a whole, concentrating on a focused area of socialisation can help with building a general knowledge that can be applied to further study of sociology and its topics. Gender is something that is experienced and encountered by all members of any given society and there are many different theories about what exactly affects an individuals gender socialisation, but this paper shall focus on early socialisation and the influence family life can have in the socialisation process. Parental influence on gender identity A childs initial experiences come from their parents; therefore as a result their first experience with gender identity also comes from their close family environment. With the advancement in technology, expectant parents can learn the sex of their unborn child as early as 14-16 weeks into a pregnancy (nhs.co.uk). From that moment the words its a boy/girl! leave the technicians mouth, gender expectations begin. The most innocent of tasks such as buying a babys first blanket is gendered. A pretty pink flowered one for your baby girl is associated with the expectation that she will be soft and delicate, whereas purchasing a vivid blue truck covered blanket for the soon to be baby boy, can be seen to set him up to be strong and tough. Associating such gender traits in a simple act may seem extreme but it is just the start of teaching a child what is expected from their gender. The process of gender socialization can be seen to begin in the context of the family (McHale et al., 2003). The family unit is the environment that a child is introduced to the world in and what their developing gender demands. Although many factors are seen to have an influence on the socialisation of a child and teaching them what is expected from their gender, parents are seen to act as the principle source of socialisation, the primary socialising agents of a childs gender roles. (Block, 1983; Witt, 1997). Studies have shown that gendered treatment of children is evident in the first 24 hours after birth. Children internalize what they see from their parents behaviour and by the age of two, they have a compressive awareness of the difference in sex roles. Ruble and martin (1998) studied preschool children whose socialisation had only occurred at home (primary) and saw that children showed awareness of stereotyped gender traits. They could recognise males as having a higher power them females, but also associated negative connotations with a male figure, such as anger or unfriendliness, whereas they saw women as having less significant social standing but associated with positive traits such as kindness and approachableness. Children also demonstrated to discover gender identity through their own gendered perception. For instance, when asked to assign a sex or gender to a neutral doll, a girl would use female associations similar to them, whereas a boy child would make the doll into a male and demonstrate traits that are associated to societys masculine gendered attributes. Parents are seen to encourage such gendered behaviour by adhering to sex-based toys and games for their children, which have a heavy influence in the construction of gender identity and stereotypes. While both mothers and fathers contribute to the gender stereotyping of their children, fathers have been found to reinforce gender stereotypes more often than mothers do (Ruble, 1988). Lytton and Romney (1991) conducted a meta-analysis of 172 parents and their treatment of the boy versus girl children they were raising. Within this study, Lytton and Romney discovered that out of multiple identified socialisation areas; the only area that showed mothers and fathers treating children differently was giving them activities based on their separate genders. Giving boys and girls activities initially based on their sex, resulted in an enforcement of gender roles and becoming gender orientated. Encouraging their daughters to play house or with dolls and prams, or by allowing their sons to play with trucks or building blocks, parents may both knowingly and unknowingly be encouraging their childs future gendered persona. Perhaps due to an influence of western culture norms, Lytton and Romney saw that parents scold and punish boys more severely in the advent of misbehaving or going out of their gendered expectations, then that they do with female children. This idea shall be further explored in a later section of this paper. A further study, this time by Cowan and Hoffman (1986), saw that a childs first words are also seen as gendered. For instance, being taught to assign a different name to each of their parents, mother for female carer and father for male carer, demonstrates how parental influence takes place. Hoffman also noted that the